Eilat is Israel's southernmost city, a busy port as well as a popular resort, located at the northern tip of the Red Sea, on the Gulf of Eilat. Home to 46,900 people,^[1] the city is part of the Southern Negev Desert, at the southern end of the Arava. The city is adjacent to the Egyptian village of Taba, to the south, and the Jordanian port city of Aqaba, to the east.

Eilat's arid desert climate is moderated by proximity to a warm sea. Temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in summer, and 18 °C (64 °F) in winter, while water temperatures range between 20 and 26 °C (68-79 °F). The city's beaches, nightlife and desert landscapes make it a popular destination for domestic and international tourism.

Archaeology and history in the region

Despite harsh conditions, the region supported large populations as far back as 8,000 BCE. Beginning in 1861 ancient sites have been recorded throughout the region, but to date only around 7% of the area has undergone a detailed archaeological survey with around 1500 ancient sites recorded in a 1,200-square-kilometre (460 sq mi) area. In contrast to the gaps found in settlement periods in the neighbouring Negev Highlands and Sinai, these sites show continuous settlement for the past 10,000 years.

The geology and landscape are varied: igneous and metamorphic rocks, sandstone and limestone; mountains up to 892 metres (2,930 ft) above sea level; broad valleys such as the Arava, and seashore on the Gulf of Aquaba. With an annual average rainfall of 28 millimetres (1.1 in) and summer temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) and higher, water resources and vegetation are limited.

"The main elements that influenced the region's history were the copper resources and other minerals, the ancient international roads that crossed the area, and its geopolitical and strategic position. These resulted in a settlement density that defies the environmental conditions."^[2]

Early settlement

The original settlement was probably Elat ^[3] at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba.^[4] Elat is mentioned in antiquity as a major trading partner with Elim, Thebes Red Sea Port as early as the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt.^[5] Trade between Elim and Elat furnished Frankincense, and Myrrh, brought up from Ethiopia and Punt; Bitumen and Natron, from the Dead Sea, finely woven Linenfrom Byblos, copper amulets from Timnah, all as mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Elat which is now on the border with Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia was anciently on the border of the states of Edom, and Midian and the tribal territory of the Rephidim the indigenous inhabitants of the Sinai. The commercial port city and copper based industrial center were maintained by Egypt in antiquity until rebuilt by Solomon.

Archaeological excavations uncovered impressive prehistoric tombs dating to the 7th millennium BCE at the western edge of Eilat, while nearby copper workings and mining operations at Timna Valley are the oldest on earth. Ancient Egyptian records also document the extensive and lucrative mining operations and trade across the Red Sea with Egypt starting as early as the Fourth dynasty of Egypt.

Biblical era

Eilat is first mentioned in the Bible in the Book of Exodus in the stations. The first six stations of the Exodus are in Egypt. The 7th is the crossing of the Red Sea and The 9th-13th are in and around Elat after they have left Egypt and crossed the Red Sea. Station 12 refers to a dozen campsites in and around Timna in Modern Israel near Elat.

When King David conquered Edom, which up to then had been a common border of Edom and Midian, he took over Eilat, the border city shared by them as well. In Kings 2 14:21-22: "And all the people of Judah took Azariah, who was sixteen years old, and made him king in the room of his father Amaziah. He built Elath, and restored it to Judah, after that the king slept among his fathers." And again in Kings 2 16:6: "At that time Rezin king of Aram recovered Elath to Aram, and drove the Jews from Elath; and the Edomites came to Elath, and dwelt there, unto this day".

During the Roman period a road was built to link the area with the Nabataean city of Petra (modern-day Jordan). The remains of a large copper smelting and trading community which flourished during the Ummayad Period (700-900 CE) were also found between what is now Eilat's industrial zone and nearby Kibbutz Eilot.

The Darb el Hajj or "Pilgrim's Road", from Africa through Egypt to Mecca, passed out of Sinai from the west at Eilat before skirting the sea and continuing south into Arabia.

Formation of the State of Israel

The area of Eilat was designated as part of the Jewish state in the 1947 UN Partition Plan. During the War of Independence an old Ottoman police station, called Umm Rashrash in Arabic, was taken without a fight on March 10, 1949 as part of Operation Ovda, in which both the Negev and Golani Brigades participated. (Only one of Umm Rashrash 's mud-brick buildings remains standing, in its own park.) Having forgotten to bring an Israeli flag with them, the Negev Brigade soldiers improvised and raised the "Ink Flag" in order to claim for Israel the area upon which Eilat would be constructed.

Growth

Begun as a military outpost, Eilat quickly grew as the area's resources were surveyed and developed. The Timna Copper Mines were opened and a port constructed, the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline laid, and tourists began visiting. The Port of Eilat became vital to the fledgling country's development.

After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War all Arab nations maintained a state of hostility with Israel, blocking all land routes; Israel's access to and trade with the rest of the world was maintained by air and sea alone. Further, Egypt denied passage through the Suez Canal to Israeli-registered ships or to any ship carrying cargo to or from Israeli ports. This made Eilat and its sea port crucial to Israel's communications, commerce and trade with Africa and Asia, and for oil imports. Without recourse to a port on the Red Sea Israel would have been unable to develop its diplomatic, cultural and trade ties beyond the Mediterranean basin and Europe.

Such a situation took place in 1956 and again in 1967, when Egypt's closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping effectively blockaded the port of Eilat. In 1956 this led to Israel's participation in the Sinai Campaign along with the U.K. and France, and in 1967 was cited by Israel as an additional casus belli leading to the outbreak of the Six-Day War.

In the 1970s tourism became increasingly important to the city's economy as other industries shut down or were drastically reduced. Today tourism is the city's major source of income.

Despite the rise in world terrorism Eilat has been relatively safe, averaging 2-3 incidents per decade for the past 30 years. The last attack, the Eilat bakery bombing, took place in a residential neighborhood of Eilat in January 2007.

Eilat, Israel as seen across the gulf from Aqaba, Jordan.

Open borders

Following peace treaties signed with Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, Eilat's borders with its neighbors were finally opened. In 2007, over 200 Sudanese refugees from Egypt who arrived in Israel illegally on foot were given work and allowed to stay in Eilat, despite the fact that Sudan is technically still at war with Israel.^[6][7][8] Eilat's population includes a large number of foreign workers, estimated at over 10,000, working as caregivers, hotel workers and in the construction trades.

Eilat became a free trade zone in 1985.^[9]

Haifa

Haifa - A city where sea touches mountain

Contents

• General Information
• History
• The Carmel Park
• The Bahais
• Other sites

General Information

Haifa, or in it's hebrew name Hefa, is a principal seaport city, in the north of Israel. It lies on the Mediterranean Sea, at the point where it touches the Carmel Mountain.

With a population of about 250,000, Haifa is the third largest city of israel, and site to the technical institue - The Technion(1924), and the Haifa University(1963).

Although an industrial city, Haifa and its near surroundings has many interesting touristical sites, including the Carmel National Park, museums, a zoo, gardens, churches, monasterys and other religious sites. Among the latters, one has to mention the Bahai World Center, which include, also, the persian garden and the newly opened hugh hanged gardens. Naturally, Haifa has also some beautiful beaches.

Haifa at night

History

Haifa appears in written documents since the second century A.C. Known sages are mentioned in jewish scripts. It was inhabited with a big jewish community, that earned it's living also from fishing seashells for crimson industry.
Notwithstanding persecution of the christian rule, jewish population remained in Haifa during bizantine era.
During early arab period, Haifa was a seaport city, that served the Galilee population. Around 1100 it served as the jewish center of the country.
At the end of early arab period it was a fortified city protected mainly by jews.
When the crusadors arrived at Haifa, they offered the jews to convert to christianity and save their lives and property. After their refusal, a battle developed, and after 25 days of fighting, the city was taken and the jewish community slaughtered. The crusadors accepted the tradition of the holliness of the Elija Cave and the mountain above it, and this was the background of the foundation of the Carmelite order here in 1156.
In 1256 Haifa was destroyed by moslems, and after the fall of Acre, in 1291, was abandoned, and stayed a small village.
At the early ottoman period, Haifa contained a small seaport. At this time it was a base for maltese pirates, until it was annexed to the boundary of Sidon, and protected with towers armed with canons.
In the middle of 18th century, the protection of the area was given to Taher El-Omar. In order to protect it easier, he destroyes Haifa in 1761 and built it anew in the narrow place between Mt. Carmel and the sea. The new city was surrounded with walls.
Around 1755 the Turks ended El-Omar's rule, and ruled in Haifa till WWI, except in two short period when it was occupied by Napoleon(1799) and Ibrahim Peha(1831). From 1761 to 1821, Haifa's population grew from 250 to 2500.
In 1868 came the german Templers, which built a settlement now known as The German Village ("Hamoshava Hagermanit"). They built many industrial plants and stores. Using violence and Germany's political power, they managed to take hold of most of the Carmelite's lands.
A turn in the history of Haifa arrived in 1905, after the laying of the Higazic rail road, that with its port made it a center through which moved pilgrims to Mekka and crops to be exported through the seaport.
At that time jews from europe settled here, and the jewish population started growing and contributed to the development of the city. After WWI and the establishment of the british mandate, the city renewed its development, and new jewish neighbourhoods were erected. During this time many factories were built, including The Oil refinement facilities. The Technion was opened in 1923, and a new rail road line was inaugurated.
This development was again interrupted by WWII, after which Haifa became a center of the struggle against british policy restricting the development of the jewish population and the immigration of holocaust survivors.
At the end of british mandate and the break of israeli independence war, Haifa's population consisted of 146,000 inhabitants, of which about 80,000 were jews.
After a heavy battle, jewish forces managed to conquer the city. As ordered by Arab Mufti, most of the arabs fled, hoping to return with the armies of arab countries, as promised to them by arab leadership. Only about 3,000 arabs stayed.
After the establishment of The State of Israel, Haifa became the gate for jewish immigration, and strengthened its position as the urban center of the north of israel.
 

The Carmel Park

The Carmel Park, that borders the city of Haifa is one of the largest parks in Israel. It contains mainly evergreen Mediterranean forest plants e.g. pines, cypresses, oaks etc. The abundance of vegetation can exist thanks to the comfortable climate: the average amount of rain exceeds 600mm all over the carmel, and can reach 800-900mm at the most rainy place. Due to proximity to sea, it is not characterised by low temperatures, usual on mountainous areas, but enjoyes average temperatures of 19C.
It serves as a popular camping site, and is ideal for walks, especially at spring time (feb.-apr.) when it is abundant with flowers.
The Hai-Bar is a wild animals reserve inside the park. It is destined to host animals formerly living in mediterranean woods and were extincted, in order to allow them to reproduce, later to be released in the area of the reserve.
 

The bahais

The bahaism is a religion founded in 1863 by the persian religious leader Mirza Husayn, later known as Bahaullah. Although it has centers all over the world, Haifa serves as the world's center of this religion. The remains of the Bab - the prophet of Bahaism, executed in persia in 1850, were moved here in the beginning of the 20th century.
The Bahai Temple, stands inside a well groomed garden. in front of the golden domed temple, stands a greek styled building that serves as an archive and museum for bahaism.
Recently, the new grand hanged gardens were opened to the public, and should be a major tourist attraction.
 

Caesarea  is a town in Israel on the outskirts of Caesarea Maritima, the ancient port city. It is located mid-way between Tel Aviv and Haifa (45 km), on the Israeli Mediterranean coast near the city of Hadera. Modern Caesarea as of December 2007 has a population of 4,500 people,[1] and is the only Israeli locality managed by a private organization, the Caesarea Development Corporation, and also one the most populous localities not recognized as a local council. It lies under the jurisdiction of the Hof HaCarmel Regional Council. 

History

Early history

Further information: Caesarea Maritima

Caesarea is believed to have been built on the ruins of Stratonospyrgos (Straton's Tower), founded by Straton I of Sidon. It was probably an agricultural storehouse in its earliest configuration.[2] In 90 BCE, Alexander Jannaeus captured Straton's Tower as part of his policy of developing the shipbuilding industry and enlarging the Hasmonean kingdom. Straton's Tower remained a Jewish city for two generations, until the Roman conquest of 63 BCE when the Romans declared it an autonomous city.

The pagan city underwent vast changes under Herod the Great, who renamed it Caesarea in honor of the emperor. In 22 BCE he began construction of a deep sea harbor and built storerooms, markets, wide roads, baths, temples to Rome and Augustus, and imposing public buildings.[3] Every five years the city hosted major sports competitions, gladiator games, and theatrical productions.

Caesarea also flourished during the Byzantine period. In the 3rd century the Jewish sages exempted the city from Jewish commandments as by this time the majority of the inhabitants were non-Jewish.[4] The city was chiefly a commercial centre relying on trade. The area was only seriously farmed during the Rashidun Caliphate period, apparently until the Crusader conquest in the eleventh century.[4] Over time, the farms were buried under the sands shifting along the shores of the Mediterranean.

In 1251, Louis IX fortified the city. The French king ordered the construction of high walls (parts of which are still standing) and a deep moat. However strong the walls were, they could not keep out the sultan Baybars, who ordered his troops to scale the walls in several places simultaneously, enabling them to penetrate the city.

Caesarea lay in ruins until the nineteenth century when the settlement of Qisarya (Arabic: BJ3'1J)) was established in 1884 by Muslim immigrants from Bosnia who built a small fishing village on the ruins of the Crusader fortress on the coast.[5] Many of the village's inhabitants left before 1948, when a railway was built bypassing the port, ruining their livelihood. The fishing village had a population of 1,148 at the last census taken in 1948. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War part of the population fled for fear of attacks, before it was conquered by Jewish forces in February, after which the remaining inhabitants were expelled and the village houses were demolished.[6]

Modern town

With the establishment of Israel, the Rothschild family made an agreement to transfer most of their vast land holdings to the new state. A different arrangement was reached however for the 35,000 dunams of land the family owned in and around modern Caesarea: After turning over the land to the state, it was leased back (for a period of 200 years) to a new charitable foundation. In his will, Edmond James de Rothschild stipulated that this foundation would further education, arts and culture, and welfare in Israel. The Caesarea Edmond Benjamin de Rothschild Foundation was formed and run based on the funds generated by the sale of Caesarea land which the Foundation is responsible for maintaining. The Foundation is owned half by the Rothschild Family, and half by the State of Israel.

The Foundation established the Caesarea Edmond Benjamin de Rothschild Development Corporation Ltd. (CDC) in 1952 to act as its operations arm. The company transfers all profits from the development of Caesarea to the Foundation, which in turns contributes to organizations that advance higher education and culture across Israel.

Geography

Caesarea is located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastal plain, the historic land bridge between Europe, Asia and Africa approximaetly half-way between the major cities of Tel Aviv 45 kilometers (28 mi) and Haifa 45 kilometers (28 mi). Caesarea is situated approximately 5 kilometers (3 mi) north west of the city of Hadera, and is bordered to the east by the Caesarea Industrial Zone and the city of Or Akiva. Directly to the north of Caesarea is the town of Jisr az-Zarqa.

Caesarea is divided into a number of residential zones, known as clusters. The most recent of these to be constructed is Cluster 12, which, like all the clusters is given a name, in this case, "The Golf Cluster", oweing to its close proximity to the Caesarea Golf Course. These neighborhoods are universally affluent, although vary largely in terms of average plot size.

Beyond the eastern boundary of the residential area of Caesarea is Highway 2, Israel's main highway linking Tel Aviv to Haifa. Caesarea is linked to the road by the Caesarea Interchange in the south, and Or Akiva Interchange in the center. Beyond Highway 2 lies Highway 4, providing more local links to Hadera, Binyamina, Zichron Yaakov, and the moshavim and kibbutzim of Emek Hefer. Highway 65 starts at the Caesarea Interchange and runs westwards into the Galilee and the cities of Pardes Hanna-Karkur, Umm al-Fahm, and Afula.

Caesarea shares a railway station with nearby Pardes Hanna-Karkur which is situated in the Caesarea Industrial Zone. The station is on the suburban line between Binyamina and Tel Aviv with two trains per hour.

Caesarea today

The Caesarea Edmond Benjamin de Rothschild Development Corporation is the operational arm of the Caesarea Edmond Benjamin de Rothschild Foundation, whose goal is to establish a unique community that combines quality of life and safeguarding the environment with advanced industry and tourism.

Today, the Chairman of the Caesarea Foundation and the CDC is Baron Benjamin de Rothschild, the great grandson the Baron Edmond de Rothschild. The deputy chairman is Avraham Biger. In recent years, the Foundation has donated over 100 million shekels to organizations such as the Interdisciplinary Center in Herzliya, the Bezalel Academy, Yad Vashem, the Open University of Israel, as well as to theaters, museums, and musical projects across the country. Sizeable grants have also been made to the neighboring towns of Or Akiva and Jisr az-Zarqa.

Caesarea remains today the only locality in Israel managed by a private organization rather than a municipal government. As well as carrying out municipal services, the Caesarea Development Corporation markets plots for real-estate development, manages the nearby industrial park, and runs the Caesarea's golf course and country club, Israel's only 18 hole golf course.

The Ralli Museum in Caesarea

Modern Caesarea is one of Israel's most upscale residential communities. The Baron de Rothschild still maintains a home in Caesarea, as do many business tycoons from Israel and abroad.

Economy

Caesarea is very much a dormitory settlement with many of its residents commuting to Tel Aviv and Haifa. On the outskirts of Caesarea, however, lies the Caesarea Business Park, a 3500 dunam business park. The park houses approximately 170 companies and employs about 5,500 people. Industry on the park varies from distribution to hi-tech sectors. The residential neighborhoods have a small shopping concourse with a newsagent, supermarket, optician, and bank. There are a number of restaurants and cafes scattered across the town, with a number within the ancient port.

Culture

The ancient ruins at the Caesarea port have become an important tourism site in Israel, with the ampthitheatre hosting regular concerts by major national and international performers. Notable performances here include regular concerts by popular Israeli singers, notably Shlomo Artzi, and international acts such as Deep Purple. Furthermore, the port has in recent years become home to the annual Caesarea Jazz Festival which offers three evenings of top class jazz performances by leading international artists. Furthermore, the Ralli Museum in Caesarea houses a large collection of South American art and several Salvador Dalí originals.[7]

Sport

Further information: Caesarea Golf & Country Club

Within Israel, Caesarea is noted for being the location of the country's only full size golf course. The Caesarea Golf Club was established after James de Rothschild was reminded by the dunes surrounding Caesarea of Scotland's sandy golf courses. He decided that he would one day build a golf course in Caesarea. Upon his death, the James de Rothschild Foundation established the course, and in 1958 a Golf Club Committee was established, and a course designed by Fred Smith was built, and was officially opened in 1961 by Abba Eban and Arthur Luria. Since this time, the Caesarea Golf Club has hosted golf competitions every four years in the Maccabiah Games. As of 2008, the course is being reconstructed to the design of Pete Dye.

Caesarea also has a country club, effectively a health complex housing, amongst other things, a semi-Olympic-sized swimming pool, gym, tennis club, and martial arts studios.[8] At nearby Sdot Yam is a well renowned water-sport club whilst the Acquaduct Beach at Caesarea is popular for swimming.

Tel Aviv, often called “the city that never stops,” was the first modern Jewish city built in Israel, and is the country’s economic and cultural center. It is a lively, active city with entertainment, culture and art, festivals, and a rich night life.

Situated on a 14-kilometer-long strip on the Mediterranean seacoast, Tel Aviv extends beyond the Yarkon River to the north and the Ayalon River to the east. Hundreds of thousands of workers, visitors, tourists, and partygoers move about the city each day until the early hours of the morning, seeking out the city’s nightclubs, restaurants, and centers of entertainment. 

History
Tel Aviv began its history in Jaffa (Yafo) - the ancient 3,000-year-old adjoining city that lies to its southwest. The current Old City of Jaffa was built during the Ottoman Empire and its stone houses and narrow alleyways now house the picturesque artists’ quarter and tourist center. 

Among the main attractions of Old Jaffa are Gan HaPisga - the Summit Garden with its restaurants, galleries, shops with Judaica, and unique atmosphere, the seaside promenade and walls of the old city, the visitors’ center in the old courtyard, and the fishing port. 

There are also several important Christian sites in Old Jaffa such as the Church of Saint Peter, which dates back to the 17th century, the house of Simon the Tanner where Peter had his vision of the non-kosher animals, and the tomb of Tabitha, whose righteous deeds enabled Peter to raise her from the dead. Around Jaffa there is the Ottoman clock tower, a vibrant flea market that is always worth visiting, and the Ajami neighborhood. 

In 1909 sixty-six Jewish families who resided in Jaffa established the first neighborhood of what would later become the city of Tel Aviv. The neighborhood, called “Akhuzat Bayit” (homestead) was originally within Jaffa. In 1910 it was renamed Tel Aviv, and the neighborhood began to expand. Other new neighborhoods were added until it eventually became the center of the Yishuv - the Jewish settlement in Palestine at the time. It was in Tel Aviv, on May 14 1948, that David Ben Gurion declared the independence of the State of Israel.

The former Akhuzat Bayit neighborhood, which extends between Montifiore Street and Yehuda HaLevi, is the historical nucleus of Tel Aviv. To the west is the neighborhood of Neveh Tsedek, which was the first Jewish neighborhood to be established outside Jaffa in 1887. This neighborhood was renovated in the 1980s and today it is a picturesque and charming neighborhood where many of the original houses are still standing. 

There are many buildings in the neighborhoods surrounding Akhuzat Bayit that were built in the eclectic style that was popular in Tel Aviv in the 1920s. Clusters of buildings built in this style can be found on Nakhlat Binyamin and in the “heart of the city” - the triangle between Shenkin Street, Rothschild Boulevard, and Allenby Street. 
  
The White City
Tel Aviv hosts a wide range of architectural styles which were influenced by various schools of architecture - among which was the International Bauhaus style. The central portion of Tel Aviv - which is known as “The White City" - contains the largest group of buildings in the world built in the International Bauhaus style. For this reason the White City has been declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO. This style originated in Germany and was based upon clean geometric shapes and asymmetry, and flourished from the 1930s until the establishment of the State. It soon attracted other city architects as well. 

The White City extends from Allenby Street to the south to the Yarkon River to the north, and from Begin Boulvard to the east to the sea. There are large concentrations of buildings of this style on Rothschild Boulevard and in the area of Dizengoff Center. Park HaYarkon is in the northern part of the White City on the banks of the Yarkon Rive and the Tel Aviv port lies at the northwest corner and has a large concentration of entertainment centers, nightclubs, and restaurants. 

Culture and Entertainment
Tel Aviv is Israel’s center for culture and entertainment. The city has more than 20 museums, the most important of which are the Land of Israel (HaAretz) Museum and the Tel Aviv Art Museum. Other Tel Aviv museums include the Museum of the Diaspora, the Israel Defense Forces History Museum, the Etzel Museum, the Haganah Museum, the Palmach Museum, The Lekhi Museum, and the Nachum Guttman Museum. 

The city hosts the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra and the Israeli Opera Company, as well as most of the national dance and theater companies. 

Tel Aviv is also the national center for night life and entertainment and is filled with night clubs featuring music of all types, dancing, restaurants, pubs, coffee houses, discotheques, movie theaters, auditoriums, and concert halls. 

The beachfront of Tel Aviv has bathing beaches and a romantic waterfront promenade. 

Tel Aviv’s important historical sites include Bialik House, Ben Gurion House, Dizengoff House, the old cemetery on Trumpeldor Street, and Reuven House. Nature lovers can visit the garden at Abu Kabir, HaYarkon Park, and the Botanical Gardens near Tel Aviv University. Families with children can enjoy an action-filled amusement park.

The city has several plazas, the best known being Rabin Square, HaMedina Square, and Dizengoff Circle. 

Eleven of the city’s churches, monasteries, and mosques, such as Saint Peter’s Church and the Franciscan Monastery, are located in Jaffa. 

Vacationers in Tel Aviv can lodge at any of the dozens of hotels, boarding houses, and youth hostels scattered throughout the city. These offer every type of accommodation ranging from luxurious rooms to simple, pleasant lodging. 

Tel Aviv is also a business and trade center. There are colorful and bustling markets such as the flea market in Jaffa, the Carmel market, the HaTikva Market, and Levinsky market. There are also modern shopping malls such as Dizengoff Center and Azrieli Center, and important business centers for high-tech companies, realtors, and the stock market. All these have made Tel Aviv the business capital of Israel and an international center for conventions, exhibitions, and conferences.